This is a question we all likely heard the Elders address from the platform from time to time. It is also clearly a topic the organisation feels strongly about, because they have chosen to include it in the FAQs on the JW.org website.

Do they really answer the question though? Or does their own response indicate that their organisation may, in-fact, be a cult?  

To help us decide for ourselves, in this article we are going to compare JW beliefs and practices with the top factors present in organisations or movements that are generally considered to be harmful or destructive cults. Firstly though, we need to understand why the term ‘cult’ is so controversial.

Why the controversy?

The term ‘cult’ has formerly been used to describe any new religion that didn’t fit the orthodox, established mould, and over time it became a way to label groups that were generally unpopular or not well understood. Because of this, the term ‘cult’ carries negative connotations and even today, most people would not appreciate someone accusing them of being in a cult.

The term ‘cult’ also has no established or widely agreed definition. There are many different definitions out there, and depending on the one you choose, you can potentially find ways to make any organisation either sound like a cult or not. In addition, many groups may have ‘cult-like’ characteristics, but not all groups with these characteristics are actually harmful.

Researchers and academics are wary of using terms that are both undefined and highly emotive, because they have a way of derailing productive discussions on the various religious, social, and political issues which they are trying to draw attention to in the first place.[1]

For example, think back to when you were a JW. How would you have reacted if someone informed you that you were in a cult? Chances are you would have become defensive (because you were convinced you had made your own ‘informed choice’ and what would this person know anyway), then you would have explained all of the two reasons why the JWs weren’t a cult, and then, if that hadn’t wiped the look of doubt off the other persons face, you would likely have ended the conversation. This is exactly the type of thing that researchers need to avoid if they want to facilitate a respectful exchange of views and understand the underlying issues that really matter.

Emotive terms, particularly those that lack an agreed definition and carry negative connotations, are also more open to being interpreted as libel and/or slander. As a result, researchers, academics, governments, and even lowly bloggers, may be somewhat reluctant to outwardly label any group as a ‘cult’ due to the increased risk of defamation litigation.

This is not to say that categorising groups based on certain characteristics is pointless, it is just that purpose and context is important. Sometimes labels may be helpful, and sometimes they are better off avoided.

When it comes to understanding the negative impacts of coercive control, learning to recognise cult-like thinking is an invaluable skill to have. Not only does it help to understand the experience of being in a high-control group, but it also ensures that we never again fall prey to an organisation (or even a person) that claims to have all the answers.  

Defining ‘cult’

There are many types of cults that fall into a range of religious, political, and even health related areas. Cult expert, Steven Hassan, encourages us to distinguish between harmful and benign cults. On his website Freedom of Mind, he defines benign cults this way:

“Benign cult groups are any group of people who have a set of beliefs and rituals that are non-mainstream.  As long as people are freely able to join with informed consent (which includes full and honest disclosure of the group’s doctrine and practices), and can choose to disaffiliate without shunning, fear, or harassment, then it is not a destructive cult.”

By this definition, the fact that JWs practice shunning of former members already disqualifies them from being a ‘benign’ cult.

Destructive cults are defined as follows (again from Freedom of Mind):

“A destructive cult is a pyramid-shaped authoritarian regime with a person or group of people that have dictatorial control.  It uses deception to recruit new members and does not tell them what the group is, what the group actually believes, and what will be expected of them if they become members.  It also uses undue influence to keep people dependent, obedient, and loyal.”

Here is another more detailed definition of a harmful or destructive cult, sourced from a report for the Cult Information and Family Support Service, Australia:

“A cult is a group or movement exhibiting a great or excessive devotion or dedication to some person, idea, or thing and employing unethically manipulative techniques of persuasion and control (e.g., isolation from former friends and family, debilitation, use of special methods to heighten suggestibility and subservience, powerful group pressures, information management, suspension of individuality or critical judgment, promotion of total dependency on the group and fear of leaving it, etc.) designed to advance the goals of the group’s leaders to the actual or possible detriment of members, their families, or the community”[2].

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Recognising harmful and destructive cults

All destructive cults have distinct features in common, the majority of which are reflected in the last two definitions above. However, because of the nature of coercive control (also referred to as ‘undue influence’), when you are under its influence you have no idea that you are actually being manipulated. Even after you have left a cult, it can even be years before you realise all the ways in which you and your life were being controlled.

To help understand what this all looks like in practice, we will now examine the key factors evident in harmful or destructive cults (based on a range of sources[3]), grouped according to the detailed definition above, to see how the JWs compare.

“…exhibiting a great or excessive devotion or dedication to some person, idea, or thing”…

All cults show excessive devotion to a person, idea, or thing, and in harmful cults this tends to come in the form of charismatic but authoritarian style leadership with a special and exclusive mission.

All destructive cults have authoritarian style leadership, and this can be just one person or a group of people. To be authoritarian means that the leaders control all decisions and accept little if any input from the group members. Decisions are made based on their preferences only, and there is usually little if any accountability for these decisions. Cult leaders will always find a way of blaming someone or something else if anything they said did not come true or did not work out in some way.

Cult leaders also have an attractive ‘mission’ of some kind which they claim to have exclusive or even divine backing for, and as a result, theirs is the only ‘truth’. They always have simple and straightforward answers to life’s big questions, and all of these answers will support the notion that theirs is the only ‘right way’ to live.

Cult leaders set the standards for acceptable cult membership and they demand unquestioning commitment and devotion from members. They are the sole judge of faith and/or commitment to the cause, so any rewards you receive are based on their judgement of your performance. They can’t be everywhere at once, so they may delegate this power to suitably indoctrinated persons of a lower rank to keep tabs on other members.

Examples from the JW organisation:

• The Governing Body is the ‘sole channel’ for God on Earth[4]. While they claim to be fallible, and even state in their FAQs that they are ‘not the leaders’ of the JW organisation, they do claim that the organisation is ‘spirit directed’,[5] and, who are the ones sitting across all key decision-making bodies within the organisation? The Governing Body.[6]

• The GB demands unquestioning obedience. The only reason they can make statements like the following is because (according to them) the JWs are the only organisation on Earth with God’s backing:

“At that time, the lifesaving direction that we receive from Jehovah’s organization may not appear practical from a human standpoint. All of us must be ready to obey any instructions we may receive, whether these appear sound from a strategic or human standpoint or not.”[7]

• Authority is given to others of a lower rank by likening them to the overseers of the ‘first-century congregation’ who were appointed by holy spirit. Quote:

“When addressing the overseers of the first-century congregation in Ephesus, the apostle Paul pointed out that holy spirit had appointed them overseers “to shepherd the congregation of God.” (Acts 20:28) The same is true of Christian overseers today, since they too are appointed on the basis of Scriptural requirements inspired by the holy spirit. Thus, obeying Christian overseers shows our respect for Jehovah and Jesus, the two greatest Shepherds. Surely this should be the foremost reason why we desire to be submissive to the elders.^”[8] (my emphasis/bolding).

• The JW ‘mission’ is to support the Almighty in the battle for universal sovereignty, and you can help save mankind by preaching the ‘good news’.[9] Your ‘spiritual maturity’[10] is judged based on how much devotion and commitment you show to this ‘mission’, encouraged through Watchtower study articles such as this one, entitled ‘Give Jehovah Exclusive devotion’.

• The GB dictate all JW doctrine and has the right to change and introduce ‘new light’ as they see fit.^[11] Quote:

“Increasing light from Jehovah continues to illuminate the path of his people. It refines them organizationally, doctrinally, and morally.”[12]

• No accountability is taken for prophecies not coming true, such as the failed 1914 prophecy and Armageddon predictions.[13] The following was written in 1968 about the upcoming year of 1975, in a Watchtower article entitled ‘Why are you looking forward to 1975?’

“One thing is absolutely certain, Bible chronology reinforced with fulfilled Bible prophecy shows that six thousand years of man’s existence will soon be up, yes, within this generation! (Matt. 24:34) This is, therefore, no time to be indifferent and complacent. This is not the time to be toying with the words of Jesus that “concerning that day and hour nobody knows, neither the angels of the heavens nor the Son, but only the Father.” (Matt. 24:36) To the contrary, it is a time when one should be keenly aware that the end of this system of things is rapidly coming to its violent end. Make no mistake, it is sufficient that the Father himself knows both the “day and hour”!”^[14] (my emphasis/bolding).

When nothing happened after these grand predictions, no responsibility whatsoever was taken for the strongly worded language which clearly directed members to the conclusion that Armageddon was coming in 1975.

In the following video from the JW.org website, people who took the above words to heart are now not only accused of having ‘wrong expectations’, but they apparently should have ignored the organisation’s advice to ignore Jesus’ advice that ‘no one knows the day nor the hour’: Cultivate Qualities that Promote Endurance (skip to 13.05 mins and view until 14.10 mins)

“…employing unethically manipulative techniques of persuasion and control”…

There are several factors present in all harmful and destructive cults which fit under this part of the definition:

-> Aggressive recruitment tactics

Destructive cults have aggressive and manipulative recruitment tactics. They will start with a small commitment (ie. read this leaflet), and then try to turn this into progressively larger commitments (ie. come to a gathering, then donate, then join in with some group activities). Once a potential member has started down this track, the sunk cost fallacy kicks in. After some time and or money has been spent, they don’t want to think this was wasted, and so they continue sinking more time and resources.

Destructive cults will also not be fully open and honest with new members, trying to appear in the best light possible. They know if they hit them with everything up front then there is no way anyone would join.

In addition, they will shower potential new recruits with attention and affection (commonly known as ‘love-bombing’), to appeal to a persons need to belong. There is positive reinforcement, such as a show of approval or small rewards for the new recruit doing something the group sees as favourable (ie. a potential new ‘sister’ turning up to a meeting in a dress for the first time receiving compliments and looks of approval, or a potential new ‘brother’ shaving off his facial hair).

No one sets out to join a cult. In their mind, they are merely joining a group which at least initially seems to align with their beliefs, offering a way of life that resonates with them, and a way to meet their innate needs to belong to a group and be a part of something bigger than themselves. Then, before they know it, they are so emotionally invested that they start to feel afraid of losing their new-found family and sense of purpose. This is when critical thinking goes out the window.

Examples from the JW organisation:

• JW campaigns and strategies designed to recruit new members.[15]
• Much of the outward facing literature and information is ‘simplified’ for public consumption (compare the content of the Awake and JW.org FAQs to the content of the study editions of the Watchtower and content delivered from the platform).
• All members encouraged to ‘show love’ to new faces, as shown in this meeting workbook which instructs JWs on how to ‘Welcome their guests’ to a memorial.
• The full implications of various JW doctrines are not discussed until such time as it is necessary and by then it is too late. For example:
  • The blood doctrineThe ‘two-witness rule’ and how this can play out in various situations, ie. adultery, CSADisfellowshipping and disassociation
  • Avoiding ‘bad associations’

-> Isolation from others outside of the group and shunning of former members

Destructive cults want to control the information members have access to, and a key way to do this is to prevent or at least strongly discourage them from socialising with anyone who is also not a member of the group. This includes those who were former members, family, friends, and anyone who may potentially alert the person to the manipulation they are subjecting themselves to. Meaningful communication with anyone outside of the cult is severely reduced, and the cult becomes the new convert’s family.

There is generally no acceptable, graceful, or legitimate way to leave a cult. Everyone needs what they have to offer, so how could anyone possibly know the ‘truth’, and yet want to leave? The answer must be that they are defective in some way, so there is no good reason to want to associate with someone like this.

There is also subtle ostracism of members within the group who may continue to associate with people the cult deems as unacceptable. They will be made to feel as though they are not as devoted as they should be by going against the direction in this regard.

Examples from the JW organisation:

• Shunning former members.[16]
• Avoiding ‘bad associations’ by minimising contact with any friends, family, or colleagues who do not ‘love Jehovah’.[17]
• Pressure to avoid being labelled as bad association for having contact with family who were formerly members (it’s ‘necessary family business’ Brother Elder! Honest!).[18]

-> Zero tolerance of disagreement, questioning, and doubt

Destructive cults consider theirs to be the only ‘truth’, so any form of dissent, disagreement, or criticism is simply not allowed. The leadership demands absolute and unquestioning obedience and will employ all sorts of techniques to scare members into submission and train them to stop thinking for themselves.

Fear is the number one tactic for squashing doubt, and cult-like thinking encourages members to be fearful of anything on the outside. This is a form of thought control known as ‘black and white thinking’, because no grey areas are allowed: ‘If you are not with us, then you must be against us’, ‘It is us versus them’, ‘Us against the entire world, ‘Good versus bad’, ‘God versus Satan’, ‘If you leave bad things will happen’.

Quite simply, if you are with them you will survive, if you aren’t, then you won’t.

 ‘Thought stopping techniques’ are also employed to suppress critical thinking. This includes things such as keeping members too busy with cult activities to think, firmly discouraging discussion on any topics which are not directly related to the group and their mission, and encouraging members to shut down any conversations which may be critical of the leadership, group practices, or anything that could be seen as disagreement or dissention.

Examples from the JW organisation:

• Disfellowshipping and shunning members who disagree with doctrine or JW cultural practices.[19]
• ‘Jehovah and us Vs Satan and the world’ type teachings induce fear of anything on the outside. Serves to suppress doubts, because even if some things aren’t quite right, if you at least stay within the organisation you will be saved.
• Keeping members fully occupied with theocratic activities so that they don’t have time to think critically.[20]
• Literature and study articles encouraging ‘the fight against independent thinking’, and ‘rejecting worldly thinking’.[21]

-> Evasion and secrecy

Harmful cults not only withhold some beliefs and practices from new members until they are ready to cope with it, they also withhold information from outsiders. Their mission is so important, or vital, or sacred, that the end justifies the means. Lying and misrepresenting themselves to anyone who does not ‘deserve’ to know the ‘truth’, is perfectly acceptable in the name of protecting whatever their mission or cause is. Their ‘mission’ or cause is the ‘truth’ so how can doing anything that protects it be, well, wrong?

Examples from the JW organisation:

• The FAQs on the JW.org website. Given your understanding of the organisation and its beliefs, are these answers open and honest? Would anyone reading the FAQs have a full and complete understanding of what the JWs actually teach? (refer to JWFacts.org: ‘Dishonesty within the JW.org website’ for a great breakdown of how and why the answers to the FAQs are dishonest and misleading).
• The JW.org response to the FAQ, ‘Are the JWs a cult?’, selects two parts of an incomplete definition to refute, and even then, does not give satisfactory answers to either. Don’t all Christian religions claim to take the scriptures as their source of authority? And is ‘a human leader’ a core part of what it means to be a cult? Not based on the definitions above. Their answers quite simply do not sufficiently address any aspect of what it means to be a harmful or destructive cult.
• ‘Theocratic warfare’, where members are encouraged not to tell the full truth to those who do not deserve to know it, ie. to ‘protect Jehovah’s name’ (ie. Rahab withholding information).[22]
• See this clip of Governing Body member, Geoffrey Jackson, appearing before the Australian Royal Commission (care of WTS Archive on YouTube). Given your knowledge of his position, power, influence, and understanding, could his testimony be considered evasive?

Jehovah’s Witnesses in Australia: Testimony of Geoffrey Jackson

Senior Counsel Assisting certainly thought so, as written in their Submission for the Public Inquiry into the Jehovah’s Witnesses and Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Case Study 29, point 336:  

-> Behavioural, information, thought, and emotional control (Steven Hassan’s BITE model)

To induce total dependency and reliance on the group, cults need to infantalise members by controlling their behaviour, their sources of information, their thoughts, and their emotions. Members must replace their own beliefs and identity with those of the group. Cults need their members to need them. Without that, the whole system breaks down.

There is some overlap with other categories covered here, but a discussion of harmful cults is not complete without incorporating the BITE model!

Note too that not all aspects outlined in the BITE model are evident in the JW organisation. Refer here for a breakdown: The BITE model and Jehovah’s Witnesses.

Examples from the JW organisation:

Behaviour:

• Dress and grooming.[23]
• Who you can and can’t sleep with/have intimate relations with/marry (sexual repression).[24]
• Encouraging members to spend their lives doing theocratic activities.[25]
• Encouraging members to make sacrifices for the organisation by giving their time, resources, and attention to the organisation.[26]
• As above, isolation from others outside of the group and shunning former members.[27]
• Becoming submissive to those ‘taking the lead’.[28]
• Only watching JW ‘approved’ types of things on TV or participating in the types of activities that do not conflict with their Christian beliefs.[29]
• The JW judicial system that serves to punish deviation from approved behaviour.

Information:

• Only associating with JW ‘approved’ people and avoiding ‘bad associations’.[30]
• Extensive use of and focus on JW produced information and literature, ie. books, magazines, tracts, brochures, videos, and even movies/dramas. Refer to JW.org for access to the organisation’s prolific publications and productions.
• Ignoring any negative external media and labelling it as false/lies (positive stuff is fine though).[31]
• Repeating seemingly non-sensical things often enough so that they become ‘truth’.
• The existence of the ‘Shepherd the flock of God‘ book shows that the JW organisation even withholds information from its own members.
• Inducing fear of apostates and apostate information. Quote:

“It is dangerous for us to argue with any opposers, to read their books or blogs, to go to their websites, or to watch their videos”.[32]

Thought:

• God knows your thoughts, your heart condition, and sees everything you do. By being omni-present, you (try to) avoid even thinking anything which could cause pain to Jehovah’.[33]
• ‘Putting on the new personality’ so that you literally change who you are and internalise the JW culture and beliefs as your own. [34]
• All of the techniques listed above in the section on zero tolerance of disagreement, questioning, and doubt (black and white thinking to instill fear of independent thought, and thought-stopping techniques to keep members from thinking critically).

Emotions:

• Squash natural affection for family members who are no longer JWs by cutting them off, even to the point of looking forward to the time when all of ‘Jehovah’s enemies’ are annihilated at Armageddon.[35]
• Ensuring members only receive enjoyment and rewards from the organisation, so they associate being happy with JW approved activities.
• Instilling fear of anything on the outside and fear of critical thinking.[36]
• Instilling guilt through teachings like ‘underserved kindness’, which make us believe that we owe everything to God, so we must give our lives to him (but only through the JW interpretation of what he wants).[37]
• Ego destruction through teachings such as ‘man is not worthy even to direct his step’. You are simply not capable of directing your own life and must rely on the organisation for everything.[38]

• The following quote encapsulates the way the organisation seeks to control members emotions:

“The Bible also links the conscience with the figurative heart, which involves our feelings and emotions. (Romans 2:15) Mind and heart must work together harmoniously if the conscience is to function properly. That means doing more than putting information into your mind. You must also mold your heart—your inner feelings, desires, and cravings.”[39] (my bolding/emphasis)

“… designed to advance the goals of the group’s leaders”…

The goal of a group’s leadership is to continue to be the group’s leadership. Without power and control over their group, they are nothing. To do this they must: Control existing members, minimise any external negative attention (unfavourable media), squash dissent within its ranks, recruit more people. Make more money.

What does the Governing Body get out of it?

What does the Governing Body get out of being, well, the Governing Body? Aren’t they just doing it out of love for Jehovah and the goodness of their hearts? Let’s think for a moment about what they actually get:

• Free accommodation
• Free travel
• Free clothes
• Free food
• Based on their JW Broadcasting appearances, free fancy watches?
• Celebrity-like status among millions of JWs around the world
• Additional ‘presents’ from devotees
• JW Broadcasting appearances
• The power to change doctrines that affect the lives of millions of people
• The ego boost of running a multi-million-dollar corporation
• And, in all fairness, they likely do also genuinely believe that they really are the only means of saving mankind!

This is why they need the organisation to continue, and it will continue…

“… to the actual or possible detriment of members, their families, or the community”.

The ultimate goal of all cults is to continue at all costs, so they only care about their members to the extent that their members can serve them. They don’t care about them as people. They will manipulate and exploit them by all the means mentioned above, and as a result, members quite simply give up everything to be a part of the group: Their identity, their lives, their families, their education, their career, their own mental and physical health, even their homes, sometimes even having children. Everything. Just so that they can devote their lives to their group’s mission.

Sometimes there are even ‘threats of harm, or actual harm, to members, their families, and/or society due to inadequate medical care, poor nutrition, psychological and physical abuse, sleep deprivation, and criminal activities.’[40] Their finances are also often exploited, and they may have poor, even slave-like working conditions, and low rates of pay, if any (think Bethel!).[41]

Examples from the JW organisation:

• Not reporting child abusers to the authorities. While they claim to ‘deal with it internally’, the Australian Royal Commission revealed just how devastating their handling of CSA cases has been to the victims, and it clearly showed they did not even consider the impact this non-disclosure to authorities may have on non-JW kids in the broader community.[42]
• Shunning breaking up families. How is this good for families, communities, and society more broadly?
• JWs are generally exploited for their time, energy, and resources which deprives them of all other life experiences and opportunities.[43]
• Unhappy JW marriages. I often heard the term, ‘Spiritual widow’, used to describe a woman basically bringing up the family on her own, because she was married to an elder and he was always far too busy with JW matters to be present at home.  
• Elders not being able to discuss anything with their wives. Not a recipe for marital bliss.
• The ‘two-witness rule’ combined with the doctrine of adultery being the only spiritual grounds for divorce preventing people from re-partnering. See earlier blog post: ‘Coercive control: Legally divorced but not ‘free’ to remarry’
• Blood rule leading to unnecessary loss of life.[44]
• The large community of former JWs who realise the extent of the organisations harmful influence and need help to recover from their experiences.
• The real culture at Bethel. What it’s really like at the supposed ‘House of God’ is gradually being revealed in various memoirs, internal leaks, and YouTube videos. There is no love. Only mistrust and exploitation. In the words of one former New York Bethelite, the advice he was given shortly after arriving was to ‘Just do your work and keep your mouth shut. They don’t care about you here.”[45]
• Burnout after Bethel.  A practicing JW once even said to me, ‘there are a lot of broken people coming out of Bethel’.

By their fruits you will recognise them

Based on all of the above, the JWs have many aspects in common with groups that are generally considered to be harmful or destructive cults. As covered earlier though, the term cult is contentious and can cause strong reactions in people, so use it with care. The label is less important than recognising that the organisation most definitely ‘bears bad fruit’.

How is understanding cults and cult-like thinking helpful?

Understanding and recognising cults, cult-like groups, and cult-like thinking, and seeing how our own experience relates, can help us understand ourselves and our lives. This is the first step on the road to recovery, so in this context, categorising or labelling groups in this way may be a helpful tool in moving forward with your life after leaving a high-control group.

Recognising cult-like thinking is also an incredibly powerful skill in this period of increasing misinformation, conspiracy theories, and radicalisation. It can help you identify groups that may be misleading or even dangerous, and will help you to never again fall victim to an organisation which does not have your best interests at heart. It could even help you prevent someone else from falling for a similar trap.

If you do know someone who is currently under the influence of coercive control, avoid informing them that they are in a cult. Instead, encourage them to listen to that little voice inside when it tells that something isn’t right. That voice is cognitive dissonance, and it pipes up when we are forcing ourselves to do, think, and act in ways which are against our innate values and reasoning. Encourage them to only give what they are willing to lose, and to always maintain connections with friends and family who are not part of their group. They may need them one day.

What are governments doing?

Governments around the world are investigating ways to take a stance against coercive control, whether it is perpetrated by a group or an individual. But in the case of groups, governments need to be extremely careful not to infringe on the right to religious freedom. According to an Australian Parliament House Inquiry into Freedom of Religion and Belief, ‘When rights are put at risk by the behaviour of others, when people are pressured or forced into actions that may harm them in some way, then society has the right to impose limits. This is sometimes the situation with bodies called cults.’[46]

There is recognition that there needs to be some accountability, but it is a difficult line for governments to tread. They also need to be extremely careful as to who they classify as a cult. This same report actually mentions Jehovah’s Witnesses, but tactfully states that JWs and other religions such as the Brethren and Seventh Day Adventists, among others, could be considered as ‘small but nevertheless mainstream religions that are not well understood or that some people think are ‘strange’ ”, as opposed to being cults.[47]

Would it say the same thing if the writers themselves had experienced the level of control exerted by the JWs? We can only guess. Likewise, whether you think the JW organisation is a cult comes down to your own experience and your own opinion. The most important thing is that you are now free to make up your own mind.

Useful resources:

The Conversation: How to talk someone out of a damaging cult , December 2, 2016

ABC podcast: The psychological tricks that made cults so dangerous – Broadcast Sun 2 Oct, 2022

Sarah Steel (2022), ‘Do as I say’, Pan MacMillan Australia (Booktopia link)

Earlier related posts:

Coercive Control: How being a JW is like being in an abusive relationship

Which beliefs cause what: How our JW beliefs affect us

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[1] Schmalz, M, in ‘The Conversation: What is a cult? August 5, 2021: https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-cult-165512, accessed 3 January 2022.

[2] Cult Information and Family Support Service, Australia, ‘The After-Effects of Cult Involvement as Experienced by Former Members: An Investigation, (2006), pp. 1-2, with additional citations of their sources in-text.

[3]  Australian Parliamentary Inquiry: Conviction with Compassion: A Report on Freedom of Religion and Belief, 2000: https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/jfadt/Religion/Relch_10; Understanding Cults – The basics (Psychology Today): https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/freedom-mind/202106/understanding-cults-the-basics; Cult mind control techniques: https://sites.google.com/site/cultmindcontroltechniques/home; The BITE model of Authoritarian Control: https://freedomofmind.com/cult-mind-control/bite-model/; 10 Things to know about the psychology of cults: https://www.onlinepsychologydegree.info/what-to-know-about-the-psychology-of-cults/; Crime reads:  https://crimereads.com/cult-thinking-and-how-to-avoid-it/; Cult Information and Family Support Service, Australia: https://www.cifs.org.au/publications.php, https://www.cifs.org.au/CultAidBooklet.pdf; Very Well Mind: What is a Cult?: https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-cult-5078234

[4] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/202002325  (km 9/02, ‘Avoid the Pursuit of “Valueless things”’, paragraph 5)

[5] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/watchtower-study-october-2020/Jehovah-Is-Directing-His-Organization/

[6] https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/governing-body-jw-helpers/

[7] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20131115/seven-shepherds-eight-dukes/ (paragraph 17).

[8] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20131115/obey-jehovahs-shepherds/ (paragraph 6).

[9] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/wp20110301/Who-Are-Preaching-the-Good-News/

[10] https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/Insight-on-the-Scriptures/Maturity/

[11] https://jwfacts.com/watchtower/directed-by-holy-spirit.php; https://jwfacts.com/watchtower/changed-watchtower-teachings.php; https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20060215/Walking-in-the-Path-of-Increasing-Light/

[12] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20060215/Walking-in-the-Path-of-Increasing-Light/ (paragraph 2)

[13] https://jwfacts.com/watchtower/failed-1914-predictions.php; https://www.jwfacts.com/watchtower/quotes/end-soon.php

[14] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1968602?q=1975&p=doc (Watchtower, 1968, 8/15, ‘Why are you looking forward to 1975?’, pp. 494 -501, Quote: Paragraph 35)

[15] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2005484 (Watchtower, 2005 7/1, ‘Bringing Good News of Something Better’, pp. 16-21)

[16] https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/shunning/

[17] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20150815/watch-associations-last-days/, https://www.jw.org/en/library/jw-meeting-workbook/april-2020-mwb/Life-and-Ministry-Meeting-Schedule-for-April-27-May-3-2020/The-Tragic-Results-of-Bad-Association/  Video: Learn to reject Bad Association

[18] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1963526 (Watchtower, 1963, 7/15, ‘Family responsibilities in keeping Jehovah’s worship pure’, pp. 443-446)

[19] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1988287 (Watchtower 1988, 4/15, ‘Discipline that can yield peaceable fruit’, pp. 26-31).

[20] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/201999161 (km 5/99, p.1 Plan Ahead) https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/watchtower-simplified-april-2016/why-should-we-meet-together-for-worship/, https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2022405 (Watchtower, May 2022, Study article 22, ‘Wisdom to Guide our Lives’, pp. 20-25).  

[21] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1983047#h=1:0-4:747 (Watchtower, 1983, 1/15, ‘Armed for the Fight against Wicked Spirits’, pp. 23-27) ; https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/watchtower-study-november-2017/reject-worldly-thinking/

[22] https://www.jwfacts.com/watchtower/quotes/theocratic-warfare-lying.php; https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1993924 (Watchtower 1993, 12/15, Rahab – Declared Righteous by Works of Faith, pp. 22-25); https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1969723 (Watchtower, 1969, 10/1, A Prophetic Pattern for Our Day, Paragraphs 7-10).

[23] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/202002167 (km5/02, Modesty in Dress and Grooming, p.6).

[24] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20150315/marry-only-in-lord-realistic/

[25] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/201999161 (km 5/99, p.1 Plan Ahead) https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/watchtower-simplified-april-2016/why-should-we-meet-together-for-worship/; https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2022405 (Watchtower, May 2022, Study article 22, ‘Wisdom to Guide our Lives’, pp. 20-25).  

[26] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/ws20131215/will-you-make-sacrifices-kingdom/

[27] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2015287 (Watchtower 2015, 4/15, ‘Why disfellowshipping is a loving provision’, pp. 29-31); https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1981688 (Watchtower 1981, 9/15 ‘Disfellowshipping – how to view it’, pp. 20-26 and ‘If a relative is disfellowshipped’, pp. 26-31).

[28] https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/Insight-on-the-Scriptures/Submissiveness/

[29] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20111015/Is-Your-Recreation-Beneficial/

[30] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/ws20150815/watch-associations-last-days/

[31] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/ws20131215/avoid-shaken-from-reason/

[32] https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/enjoy-life-forever/section-4/lesson-58/

[33] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/wp20130901/make-god-happy-not-hurt/

[34]https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/library/r1/lp-e/all-publications/watchtower/the-watchtower-2022/study-edition/march (Watchtower 2022, March Study edition, Study articles 10 and 11).

[35] Antony Morris III (former member of the Governing Body): Jehovah will ‘Carry it out’ (Isa. 46:11). https://www.jw.org/en/library/videos/#en/mediaitems/VODPgmEvtMorningWorship/pub-jwb_202009_11_VIDEO

[36] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20150815/watch-associations-last-days/

[37] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/watchtower-study-july-2016/grateful-recipients-of-gods-undeserved-kindness/

[38] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1999644 (Watchtower 1999, 9/1 ‘Make your life successful’, pp. 19-24)

[39] https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1997561#h=2 (Watchtower 1997, 8/1 ‘How to train your conscience’, pp. 4-6)

[40] Cult Information and Family Support Service, Australia, ‘The After-Effects of Cult Involvement as Experienced by Former Members: An Investigation, (2006), p. 2, with additional citations of their sources in-text.

[41]https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/jfadt/Religion/Relch_10;.

[42] Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse, Case Study 29 – Report: https://www.childabuseroyalcommission.gov.au/sites/default/files/file-list/Case%20Study%2029%20-%20Findings%20Report%20-%20Jehovahs%20Witnesses.pdf ; YouTube Video: Testimony of Rodney Spinks and Terrance O’Brien, Part 2, Case Study 54 (Jehovah’s Witnesses) (go to around 55 mins): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRzpa7DOsRE; and Part 3, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sPwxVG-BxrY (go to around 25 mins).

[43] https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/ws20131215/will-you-make-sacrifices-kingdom/

[44] https://www.ajwrb.org/jehovahs-witnesses-and-blood-tens-of-thousands-dead-in-hidden-tragedy

[45] Casarona, K. (2019), ‘New Boy’, p. 122

[46] Australian Parliamentary Inquiry: Conviction with Compassion: A Report on Freedom of Religion and Belief, 2000: https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/jfadt/Religion/Relch_10#3

[47] Australian Parliamentary Inquiry: Conviction with Compassion: A Report on Freedom of Religion and Belief, 2000: https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/jfadt/Religion/Relch_10#3